Massive Parallelism:“One robotic arm assembling molecular parts is going to take a long time to assemble anything large — so we need lots of robotic arms: this is what we mean by massive parallelism.” http://www.zyvex.com/nano/
Ever hear of intelligent sensors and electronics on doctors' surgical gloves, microscopic machines (nanobots) that repair damaged cells and organs, materials much lighter than steel that have ten times their strength, or zero emissions cars? While these might not be products of today, they may become products of tomorrow.
If researchers are successful, nanotechnology will revolutionize the world in incomprehensible ways, impacting every aspect of society. With nanotechnology’s potential ability to self-replicate and to be used in tandem with artificial intelligence, manufacturing and international trade will change dramatically. Potential military uses and subsequent build-ups will change the balance of power as well.
In 2006, total global public research and development (R&D) investments in nanotechnology reached $6.4 billion, in addition to $6.0 billion in private investments.1 Today, more than 60 countries worldwide have national nanotechnology R&D programs.
The international debate over nanotechnology has begun, as many believe that governments and intergovernmental agencies should already be weighing in and preparing treaties and other relevant legislation to address the potential uses of and impacts of nanotechnology.
This analysis will define nanotechnology and its current state of development, highlight military applications and the potential fall-out, introduce relevant ethical dilemmas, articulate nanotechnology’s environmental and health-related risks, and articulate the role of governments and international organizations in regulating its development.
What is nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology refers to the research and engineering of products whose characteristic dimensions are less than 1,000 nanometers. Molecular nanotechnology allows for the placement of every atom in its correct spot, will “make almost any structure consistent with the laws of physics that we can specify in molecular detail,” and will “have manufacturing costs not greatly exceeding the cost of the required raw materials and energy.”2 Since most manufactured products are made of atoms, whose properties change depending on the arrangement of those atoms, nanotechnology allows for the development of more precise and dynamic applications of the atomic arrangement in a given structure.
The assembly of atoms at the nano-level uses “some form of positional assembly (to get the right molecular parts in the right places) and some form of massive parallelism (to keep the costs down).”3 Molecular robotics can “resemble very small versions of their everyday macroscopic counterparts.”4
Normal macroscopic counterparts already frequently use positional assembly, so the concept, in theory, can be applied at the nano-level. The massive parallelism will be achieved through convergent assembly, in which large numbers of nano-sized parts are assembled by large numbers of small robotic arms into larger parts, which are then assembled by larger robotic arms into even larger parts (etc). Every step doubles the size of the part, allowing for the creation of a meter-long product after 30 steps.6
Nanotechnology Research and Development
The U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative labels different phases of nanotechnology development:
Passive nanostructures: contact nanostructures (such as aerosol sprays) and products using nanostructures (such as coatings and ceramics)
Active nanostructures: bio-active (such as targeted drugs) and physio-chemical active (such as 3d transistors and amplifiers)
Systems of nanostructures: such as guided assembly and robotics
Molecular nanosystem: such as molecular devices by design
Currently the first two phases are already being used or are in development.7
For example, Canadian researched announced that they have created a prototype microchip that may lead to a portable device to diagnose cancer within 30 minutes, as well as other diseases including HIV, bacterial infections, or swine flu. The chip costs $20, but its price is expected to decrease as the technology is scaled up to commercial levels.8
Recently, researchers in the United Kingdom are reporting that they can get molecules to move quickly in a desired direction, without the help of outside forces. This step is considered key for moving forward from phase one to two/three, such as the creation of self-healing structures.9
Other promising developments have been documented in photovoltaic devices, producing hydrogen energy, reducing energy transmission losses, improving desalination and water filtration systems, increasing the memory storage of computer drives, detect specific pathogens or toxins in the air, and more.10
Nanotechology is considered an exponential technology; as eventually it will be able reproduce its own means of production. We are estimated to reach this phase is 20-30 years.11
Military Applications
In 1997, Mark Avrum Gubrud, Center for Superconductivity Research, drafted a paper entitled “Nanotechnology and International Security” for the Fifth Foresight Conference on Molecular Nanotechnology.12 In this paper, he highlighted the potential military applications and implications for nanotechnology. Better versions of current weapons (nuclear and non-nuclear) may be developed, such as self-guided bullets and germ warfare based on certain DNA types. He expects that nanotechnology developments will emerge around the world simultaneously or within short period of time, with no specific country taking the lead.
His major areas of concern include:
Revolutionary advances in military capabilities that stimulate competition to apply these capacities to war preparations
An uncontrolled arms race amongst advanced nations or blocs (unless restraints are placed before the arms race starts)
International trade of raw materials and finished goods being replaced by decentralized production for local consumption, using locally available materials and artificial intelligence, leading to economic insecurity and rise of demagogue leaders
Chaos: shifting alignments, displaced populations, power struggles, and ethnic conflicts
Increased competition for scarce land, water and space resources
Civil defense construction to actively defend against threats that alter the current balance of power.13
Low-cost, self-replicating systems and the use of artificial intelligence (which can think and react faster than human) will further fuel all above areas of concern, especially the arms races. The amount of weapons that could potential be produced is staggering. Gubrud recommends continuing the process nuclear disarmament, as well as “general and global treaty banning the placement or testing of destructive devices in orbit.”14 He also recommends other multilateral treaties dealing with outer space and the oceans, as well as the division of valuable natural resources.
Ethical Dilemmas
The Center for Responsible Nanotechnology asks four key ethnical questions concerning nanotechnology:
Who will own the technology?
Will it be heavily restricted, or widely available?
What will it do to the gap between rich and poor?
How can dangerous weapons be controlled, and perilous arms races be prevented?15
There are no easy answers to these questions. If nanobots can target and eliminate disease, repair organs, heal limbs, life expectancy will increase dramatically. If this occurs, then societies will have to deal with increasing populations, who will need to jobs, housing, food, and all the every-day needs of life. The issue of access and ownership are critical when dealing with these basic necessities.
What is clear is that whoever controls the application of nanotechnology will have inordinate global power and influence.
Environmental and Health Risks
In August 2009, Friends of the Earth, Consumer Union and International Center for Technology Assessment released a joint report warning readers about the use of sunscreen containing nano-forms of zinc oxide, stating that its risks are unknown.16 The report notes that nanomaterials can enter into the lungs easily and pass through cell membrane. The report further states that nanomaterials can have a broad impact, accumulating as pollutants in air, soil and water. There are also risks to workers, as there are no established safe levels of exposure.17
Research on carbon nanotubes and fullerenes (carbon tubes), which are commonly used applications of nanomaterials, is inconclusive. Some studies show lung tissue damage in mice, while other studies found these applications to be non-toxic.18 The ability of nanoparticles to penetrate the blood-brain barrier can be viewed as both positive and negative; the barrier hinders the delivery of therapeutic agents, but also protects the brain from harmful substances.19
There have not been enough studies to fully understand all of nanomaterials’ health and environmental risks. Many would like to see governments take an active role in funding and publishing these studies.
Role of Government and Inter-government policy
There are nano-technology debates, initiatives, and recommended actions both at the state and inter-governmental levels.
In the US, the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) is responsible for appropriating funds to 13 federal agencies for nanotechnology research and an additional 12 agencies that are responsible for health, safety, and environmental regulations, trade, education, training, intellectual property rights, international relations and other issues.
Top recipient agencies for research include the: Department of Defense, National Science Foundation, Department of Energy, National Institutes of Health’s Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Standards and Technology, National Security Agency, and the Environmental Protection Agency. A total of $1.53 billion dollars of funds have been requested for 2009, up from $464 million given in 2001 to the various agencies.20
A key piece of US legislation is the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act, passed by Congress in 2003, which gives a legislative foundation to the NNI, assigns agency responsibilities and sets authorization levels. The NNI also coordinates its activities with the White House.21
In France, the Commission of Public Debates is currently leading a country-wide series of debates on nanotechnology. The debate program also includes a website where people can post questions and learn more about nanotechnology.22 Similar public engagement efforts have been held in the United Kingdom.23
Recently, the European Commission (EC) released a communiqué proposing measures to boost the market for nanotechnology, nanoelectronics and biotechnology. The recent communication is one of many published in the last couple of years. Past policy documents include the European Strategy for nanotechnology (2004), Action Plan on nanotechnology (2005), and the first Implementation Report on the Action Plan (2007). In 2008, the EC passed a code of conduct on nanotechnology research, which provides specific, voluntary rules for European scientists and researchers that are active in nanotechnology.24
From 1997 to 2007, more than 560 million Euros was spent by the EC on nanotechnology research projects. The EC Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development provides funding for nanotechnology projects, such as the Pan-European Forum for Nanotechnology that addressed governance issues and the Science and Society Programme that developed dialogue activities between the scientific community and society at large.
Currently, the EC is in the midst of the 7th Framework Programme (2007-2013), which sponsors programming, including nanotechnology programmes, on cooperation, ideas, people and capacities; 3,467 million Euro have been set aside specifically for nanotechnology projects (numbers do not include all the EC governance initiatives on nanotechnology.25
Paul Collins, Environmental Law solicitor at Bond Pearce, Bristol, UK, recommends the development of an international framework convention (IFC) for nanotechnology. Challenges for achieving such a framework include: 1) lack of scientific consensus on the environmental impact of nanotechnologies; 2) lack of appropriate forum to negotiate the convention; 3) lack of structures to address non-compliance. An IFC would need procedures to develop, share, and assess scientific information and include a negotiations process when significant risk is identified. Australia, Japan, United Kingdom, and the U.S. have already independently concluded that a voluntary industry product stewardship program is necessary.26
Looking Ahead
Gubrud’s analysis of mayhem and chaos stemming from the advancement of nanotechnologies in the military sphere, in the absence of a coordinated international response, offers a scary alternative reality. While written more than 12 years ago, it is still a potent reminder of the necessity to grapple with the complex moral and scientific challenges associated with nanotechnologies. Much has already been done on the national and regional level to start assessing risk and to coordinate research and development. But clearly more needs to be done.
The potential benefits are amazing, as clean energy, disease, environmental contamination, access to clean water, and other major world problems might be eliminated or at the least alleviated. Of course a whole host of new problems might arise. Nonetheless, this exciting new technology may change the world forever.
Ever hear of intelligent sensors and electronics on doctors' surgical gloves, microscopic machines (nanobots) that repair damaged cells and organs, materials much lighter than steel that have ten times their strength, or zero emissions cars? While these might not be products of today, they may become products of tomorrow. 
Nanotechnology refers to the research and engineering of products whose characteristic dimensions are less than 1,000 nanometers. Molecular nanotechnology allows for the placement of every atom in its correct spot, will “make almost any structure consistent with the laws of physics that we can specify in molecular detail,” and will “have manufacturing costs not greatly exceeding the cost of the required raw materials and energy.”
In August 2009, Friends of the Earth, Consumer Union and International Center for Technology Assessment released a joint report warning readers about the use of sunscreen containing nano-forms of zinc oxide, stating that its risks are unknown.